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Scientific Name of Chicken Scientific Name of Beef

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Domesticated subspecies of bird

"Cockadoodledoo" and "Cocka-doodle-doo" redirect here. For the nursery rhyme, come across Cock a doodle doo.

Chicken
Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg
A rooster (left) and hen (right) perching on a roost

Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Club: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Gallus
Species:

Thou. domesticus

Binomial proper name
Gallus domesticus

(Linnaeus, 1758)
GLW 2 global distributions of c) chickens.tif
Craven distribution

The chicken (Gallus domesticus) is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl, with attributes of wild species such equally grey and ceylon junglefowl[ane] that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an developed male bird, and a younger male person may exist chosen a cockerel. A male person that has been castrated is a capon. An adult female person bird is called a hen and a sexually immature female person is called a pullet.

Originally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic menstruum (4th–2nd centuries BC).[2] [3] Humans now proceed chickens primarily equally a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets.

Chickens are one of the nearly mutual and widespread domestic animals, with a full population of 23.7 billion as of 2018[update],[four] upward from more than than xix billion in 2011.[five] There are more than chickens in the world than any other bird.[5] There are numerous cultural references to chickens – in myth, sociology and religion, and in language and literature.

Genetic studies take pointed to multiple maternal origins in S Asia, Southeast Asia, and East asia,[6] simply the clade found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle E and Africa originated from the Indian subcontinent. From aboriginal India, the chicken spread to Lydia in western asia Minor, and to Greece by the fifth century BC.[seven] Fowl have been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BC, with the "bird that gives birth every day" having come from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Thutmose Three.[8] [9] [x]

Terminology

An developed male is a chosen a cock or (in the United States) a rooster and an adult female person is called a hen.[11] [12]

Other terms are:

  • Biddy: a newly hatched chicken[thirteen] [14]
  • Capon: a castrated or neutered male chicken[a]
  • Chick: a young chicken[15]
  • Chook : a chicken (Commonwealth of australia/New Zealand, informal)[16]
  • Cockerel: a young male craven less than a year former[17]
  • Dunghill fowl: a craven with mixed parentage from different domestic varieties.[xviii]
  • Pullet: a immature female chicken less than a year erstwhile.[19] In the poultry industry, a pullet is a sexually immature chicken less than 22 weeks of age.[xx]
  • Yardbird: a chicken (southern U.s.a., dialectal)[21]

Chicken was originally a term only for an young, or at least young, bird.[ when? ] All the same, thanks to its usage on restaurant menus, it has now get the most common term for the subspecies in general, especially in American English. In older sources, chicken as a species were typically referred to as common fowl or domestic fowl.[22]

Craven may too mean a chick (encounter for example Hen and Craven Islands).[23]

Etymology

According to Merriam-Webster, the term rooster (i.due east. a roosting bird) originated in the mid- or belatedly 18th century as a euphemism to avoid the sexual connotation of the original English cock,[24] [25] [26] and is widely used throughout North America. Roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at night.[27]

General biology and habitat

In about breeds the adult rooster tin be distinguished from the hen by his larger comb.

Chickens are omnivores.[28] In the wild, they frequently scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects, and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes,[29] or sometimes young mice.[30]

The average craven may live for 5–10 years, depending on the breed.[31] The world's oldest known chicken lived xvi years according to Guinness World Records.[32]

Diagram of a craven skull.

Eggs from dissimilar breeds

Roosters tin usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plume of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks ('hackles') and backs ('saddle'), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of females of the same breed. All the same, in some breeds, such equally the Sebright chicken, the rooster has but slightly pointed cervix feathers, the same colour every bit the hen's. The identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male person's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may exist differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a rummage, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male person and female person take wattles and combs, only in about breeds these are more prominent in males. A 'muff' or 'beard' is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering nether the craven's face up, giving the appearance of a bristles.[33]

Domestic chickens are not capable of long-altitude flying, although lighter chickens are generally capable of flying for brusque distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally wing briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to abscond perceived danger.

Beliefs

Hen with chicks, Portugal

Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of immature. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a 'pecking order', with dominant individuals having priority for nutrient access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking gild is established. Adding hens, particularly younger birds, to an existing flock tin lead to fighting and injury.[34]

When a rooster finds nutrient, he may phone call other chickens to eat first. He does this past clucking in a high pitch likewise as picking upward and dropping the nutrient. This behaviour may also be observed in mother hens to phone call their chicks and encourage them to eat.

A rooster's crowing is a loud and sometimes shrill call and sends a territorial signal to other roosters.[35] Notwithstanding, roosters may also crow in response to sudden disturbances within their environs. Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg, and as well to call their chicks. Chickens likewise give unlike alarm calls when they sense a predator approaching from the air or on the ground.[36]

Crowing

Roosters virtually always start exultation earlier iv months of age. Although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, exultation (together with hackles development) is ane of the clearest signs of being a rooster.[37]

Rooster crowing contests

Rooster crowing contests, also known as crowing contests, are a traditional sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium,[38] the United states, Indonesia and Nippon. The oldest contests are held with longcrowers. Depending on the brood, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a certain time is measured.

Courting

To initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or most a hen (a 'circle dance'), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen.[39] The dance triggers a response in the hen[39] and when she responds to his 'call', the rooster may mount the hen and go on with the mating.

More specifically, mating typically involves the following sequence:

  1. Male approaching the hen
  2. Male pre-copulatory waltzing
  3. Male waltzing
  4. Female crouching (receptive posture) or stepping aside or running away (if unwilling to copulate)
  5. Male mounting
  6. Male person treading with both feet on hen's back
  7. Male tail angle (following successful copulation)[40]

Nesting and laying behaviour

Chicken eggs vary in colour depending on the brood, and sometimes, the hen, typically ranging from bright white to shades of brown and even bluish, green, light pinkish and recently reported purple (found in Southern asia) (Araucana varieties).

Chicks before their first outing

Hens will ofttimes try to lay in nests that already incorporate eggs and accept been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their ain. The effect of this behaviour is that a flock volition use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird. Hens will oftentimes express a preference to lay in the same location. It is not unknown for ii (or more than) hens to try to share the same nest at the aforementioned time. If the nest is small-scale, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may issue in chickens trying to lay on peak of each other. There is evidence that individual hens prefer to exist either solitary or gregarious nesters.[41]

A chick sitting in a person'southward hand

Broodiness

Under natural conditions, virtually birds lay only until a clutch is consummate, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are then said to "go broody". The broody hen will cease laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a total clutch is unremarkably about 12 eggs). She will sit down or 'set' on the nest, fluffing upwards or pecking in defence if disturbed or removed. The hen volition rarely exit the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe.[42] While heart-searching, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and humidity, every bit well every bit turning the eggs regularly during the kickoff part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, owners may place several bogus eggs in the nest. To discourage it, they may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire flooring.

Skull of a three-week-old craven. Hither the opisthotic bone appears in the occipital region, as in the adult Chelonian. bo = Basi-occipital, bt = Basi-temporal, eo = Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Foramen magnum, fo = Fontanella, oc = Occipital condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = Parietal, pf = Postal service-frontal, sc = Sinus canal in supra-occipital, so = Supra-occpital, sq = Squamosal, 8 = Exit of vagus nervus.

Breeds artificially developed for egg product rarely go broody, and those that practice often stop role-way through the incubation. All the same, other breeds, such equally the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, practice regularly go broody, and make splendid mothers, non only for chicken eggs but likewise for those of other species — even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such equally quail, pheasants, ducks, turkeys, or geese.

Hatching and early life

Fertile craven eggs hatch at the cease of the incubation period, about 21 days.[39] Development of the chick starts only when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch inside a day or two of each other, despite possibly beingness laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen tin can hear the chicks peeping within the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to intermission out of their shells. The chick begins by 'pipping'; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side. The chick then rests for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the beat (used earlier for breathing through the shell). The chick then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the crush completely to make a chapeau. The chick crawls out of the remaining shell, and the wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.

Hens usually remain on the nest for nearly two days after the start chick hatches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks feed past absorbing the internal yolk sac. Some breeds sometimes offset eating cracked eggs, which can go habitual.[43] Hens fiercely guard their chicks, and brood them when necessary to go on them warm, at showtime ofttimes returning to the nest at night. She leads them to food and water and will telephone call them toward edible items, just seldom feeds them directly. She continues to intendance for them until they are several weeks onetime.

Defensive behaviour

Chickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced predator. At least one credible report exists of a young fox killed by hens.[44] [45] [46] A grouping of hens have been recorded in attacking a militarist that had entered their coop.[47]

If a chicken is threatened by predators, stress, or is sick, at that place is a chance that they will puff upward their feathers.[42]

Reproduction

Sperm transfer occurs by cloacal contact betwixt the male and female, in a maneuver known as the 'cloacal osculation'.[48] Every bit with birds in general, reproduction is controlled by a neuroendocrine system, the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons in the hypothalamus. Locally to the reproductive arrangement itself, reproductive hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) initiate and maintain sexual maturation changes. Over time there is reproductive decline, thought to exist due to GnRH-I-Northward decline. Because in that location is pregnant inter-individual variability in egg-producing duration, it is believed to be possible to breed for further extended useful lifetime in egg-layers.[49]

Embryology

(Video) Earliest gestation stages and blood apportionment of a chicken embryo

Chicken embryos have long been used as model organisms to study developing embryos. Large numbers of embryos can exist provided by commercial chicken farmers who sell fertilized eggs which can be hands opened and used to observe the developing embryo. Every bit important, embryologists can conduct out experiments on such embryos, close the egg again and study the upshot subsequently on. For instance, many of import discoveries in the area of limb evolution have been fabricated using chicken embryos, such as the discovery of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the zone of polarizing action (ZPA) by John W. Saunders.[50]

In 2006, scientists researching the beginnings of birds "turned on" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and establish that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those establish in aboriginal bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have "...retained the ability to make teeth, nether certain conditions... ."[51]

Chicks atop a picture of a genetic map of a chicken. The chicken genome has 39 pairs of chromosomes, whereas the human genome contains 23 pairs

The 1000. gallus genome has 39 pairs of chromosomes, whereas the human genome contains 23 pairs

Genetics and genomics

Given its eminent function in farming, meat production, only also research, the house chicken was the first bird genome to exist sequenced.[52] At ane.21 Gb, the chicken genome is considerably smaller than other vertebrate genomes, such equally the human genome (iii Gb). The final gene set contained 26,640 genes (including noncoding genes and pseudogenes), with a total of 19,119 protein-coding genes in annotation release 103 (2017), a similar number of poly peptide-coding genes as in the human genome.[53]

Physiology

Populations of chickens from high altitude regions like Tibet have special physiological adaptations that result in a higher hatching charge per unit in low oxygen environments. When eggs are placed in a hypoxic environment, chicken embryos from these populations express much more hemoglobin than embryos from other chicken populations. This hemoglobin also has a greater affinity for oxygen, allowing hemoglobin to demark to oxygen more readily.[54] [55]

Pinopsins were originally discovered in the chicken pineal gland.[56]

Immunology

Although all avians appear to accept lost TLR9, bogus immunity confronting bacterial pathogens has been induced in neonatal chicks past Taghavi et al 2008 using tailored oligodeoxynucleotides.[57]

Breeding

Origins

Galliformes, the order of bird that chickens vest to, is directly linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct. H2o or footing-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges, survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction outcome that killed all tree-home birds and dinosaurs.[58] Some of these evolved into the modern galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a main model. They are descended primarily from the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified every bit the aforementioned species.[59] As such, domesticated chickens can and do freely interbreed with populations of red junglefowl.[59] Subsequent hybridization of the domestic craven with grayness junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and dark-green junglefowl occurred;[threescore] a gene for yellow pare, for example, was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii).[61] In a study published in 2020, it was found that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their genome with red junglefowl, with the period of domestication dated to 8,000 years agone.[sixty]

Red junglefowl hen in India

The traditional view is that chickens were first domesticated for cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe.[2] In the concluding decade, there have been a number of genetic studies to analyze the origins. According to one early on study, a unmarried domestication result of the red junglefowl in what now is the country of Thailand gave rise to the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds.[62] The scarlet junglefowl, known as the bamboo fowl in many Southeast Asian languages, is well adapted to take advantage of the vast quantities of seed produced during the end of the multi-decade bamboo seeding cycle, to boost its own reproduction.[63] In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of this predisposition for prolific reproduction of the ruby-red junglefowl when exposed to large amounts of food.[64]

Exactly when and where the chicken was domesticated remains a controversial event. Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years agone[60] in Southeast Asia and spread to Cathay and India 2000–3000 years later. Archaeological show supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000 BC, Mainland china by 6000 BC and Republic of india by 2000 BC.[lx] [65] [66] A landmark 2020 Nature study that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the globe suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of red junglefowl whose nowadays-day distribution is predominantly in southwestern China, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread across Southeast and South Asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial brood shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of cherry junglefowl.[67] [68] [69]

Middle Eastern craven remains go back to a little earlier than 2000 BC in Syria; chickens went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. They reached Egypt for purposes of cockfighting about 1400 BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300 BC).[70] Phoenicians spread chickens forth the Mediterranean coasts as far as Iberia. During the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC), in the Southern Levant, chickens began to be widely domesticated for food.[three] This change occurred at least 100 years earlier domestication of chickens spread to Europe.

Chickens reached Europe circa 800 BC.[71] Breeding increased under the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages.[70] Genetic sequencing of chicken bones from archaeological sites in Europe revealed that in the High Middle Ages chickens became less aggressive and began to lay eggs before in the breeding season.[72]

3 possible routes of introduction into Africa around the early showtime millennium Ad could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The primeval known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date back to the middle of the showtime millennium AD.[seventy]

Domestic craven in the Americas before Western contact is notwithstanding an ongoing discussion, merely blue-egged chickens, found just in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.[seventy]

A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes information technology difficult to lay out a articulate map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better clarification and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.[70]

S America

An unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in Due south America is the Araucana, bred in southern Chile by the Mapuche people. Araucanas lay blue-greenish eggs. Additionally, some Araucanas are tailless, and some have tufts of feathers around their ears. It has long been suggested that they pre-engagement the arrival of European chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians, and S America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of their analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in s-cardinal Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia.[73] These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that in that location were transpacific contacts betwixt Polynesia and South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.[74] [75]

Yet, a afterwards report looking at the same specimens ended:

A published, manifestly pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island grouping with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may stand for a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further dubiety on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient Deoxyribonucleic acid sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.[76]

The argue for and against a Polynesian origin for South American chickens continued with this 2014 paper and subsequent responses in PNAS.[77]

Use by humans

Farming

A former battery hen, five days subsequently release. Note the pale rummage – the rummage may exist an indicator of health or vigor.[78]

More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of meat and eggs.[79] In the United States alone, more eight billion chickens are slaughtered each year for meat,[fourscore] and more 300 million chickens are reared for egg production.[81]

The vast majority of poultry are raised in manufacturing plant farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the globe's poultry meat and 68 per centum of eggs are produced this manner.[82] An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming.

Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that information technology harms the environment, creates human being health risks and is inhumane.[83] Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems salvage land and nutrient resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked subsequently in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.[84]

Reared for meat

A commercial chicken business firm with open sides raising broiler pullets for meat

Chickens farmed for meat are chosen broilers. Chickens will naturally alive for six or more years, but broiler breeds typically accept less than six weeks to reach slaughter size.[85] A gratis range or organic broiler volition unremarkably be slaughtered at most xiv weeks of historic period.

Reared for eggs

Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are chosen layer hens. In total, the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per 24-hour interval.[86] Some hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per yr, with "the highest authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364 days".[87] After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability starts to decline to the signal where the flock is commercially unviable. Hens, specially from battery muzzle systems, are sometimes infirm or take lost a pregnant amount of their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around 7 years to less than two years.[88] In the UK and Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold equally 'soup hens'.[88] In another countries, flocks are sometimes forcefulness moulted, rather than being slaughtered, to re-invigorate egg-laying. This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 7–14 days[89] or sufficiently long to cause a trunk weight loss of 25 to 35%,[xc] or upward to 28 days under experimental weather.[91] This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but too re-invigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be forcefulness-moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the US.[92]

As pets

A 95-yr-old woman from Havana, Cuba, with her pet rooster

Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s[93] among urban and suburban residents.[94] Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as any other pet similar cats or dogs. Chickens provide companionship and have individual personalities. While many practise non cuddle much, they will eat from one's hand, jump onto i's lap, respond to and follow their handlers, as well every bit evidence amore.[95] [96]

Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent[97] birds, and many find their behaviour entertaining.[98] Certain breeds, such as Silkies and many bantam varieties, are generally docile and are oft recommended equally good pets around children with disabilities.[99] Many people feed chickens in part with kitchen nutrient scraps.

Backyard heritage chickens eating kitchen food scraps.

Cockfighting

A cockfight is a competition held in a ring called a cockpit between two cocks known as gamecocks. This term, denoting a erect kept for game, sport, pastime or entertainment, appears in 1646,[100] later on "cock of the game" used past George Wilson in the earliest known volume on the secular sport, The Citation of Cocks and Cock Fighting of 1607. Gamecocks are not typical farm chickens. The cocks are specially bred and trained for increased stamina and strength. The comb and wattle are removed from a immature gamecock because, if left intact, they would be a disadvantage during a match. This procedure is called dubbing. Sometimes the cocks are given drugs to increase their stamina or thicken their blood, which increases their chances of winning. Cockfighting is considered a traditional sporting event past some, and an instance of animate being cruelty by others and is therefore outlawed in near countries.[101] Commonly wagers are made on the outcome of the match, with the survivor or last bird standing declared winner.

Chickens were originally used for cockfighting, a sport where 2 male person chickens (cocks) fight each other until one dies or becomes badly injured. Cocks possess built aggression toward all other cocks to contest with females. Studies suggest that cockfights have existed even up to the Indus Valley Civilisation as a pastime.[102] Today information technology is commonly associated with religious worship, pastime, and gambling in Asian and some South American countries. While not all fights are to the death, almost use metal spurs as a weapon attached above or below the chicken's own spur, which typically results in decease in ane or both cocks. If chickens are in do, owners place gloves on the spurs to prevent injuries. Cockfighting has been banned in most western countries and debated by animal rights activists for its brutality.

Artificial incubation

Incubation can occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick.[103] [104] The average incubation period for chickens is 21 days just the duration depends on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the well-nigh critical factor for a successful hatch. Variations of more 1 °C (1.8 °F) from the optimum temperature of 37.5 °C (99.five °F) will reduce hatch rates. Humidity is besides of import considering the rate at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed past candling, to view the size of the alveolus, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to around seventy% in the last three days of incubation to keep the membrane around the hatching chick from drying out after the chick cracks the shell. Lower humidity is usual in the first xviii days to ensure adequate evaporation. The position of the eggs in the incubator can besides influence hatch rates. For best results, eggs should be placed with the pointed ends down and turned regularly (at least 3 times per twenty-four hours) until i to three days earlier hatching. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside may stick to the trounce and may hatch with physical defects. Adequate ventilation is necessary to provide the embryo with oxygen. Older eggs crave increased ventilation.

Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the eggs a fully automated process. Domicile incubators are boxes property from 6 to 75 eggs; they are ordinarily electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or alkane series lamp.

Diseases and ailments

Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and abdominal worms, too as other diseases. Despite the name, they are not affected by chickenpox, which is generally restricted to humans.[105]

Chickens can carry and transmit salmonella in their dander and feces. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggest against bringing them indoors or letting modest children handle them.[106] [107]

Some of the diseases that can affect chickens are shown below:

Name Common proper name Cause
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fungi
Avian flu bird flu virus
Histomoniasis blackhead disease Histomonas meleagridis
Botulism paralysis Clostridium botulinum toxin
Cage layer fatigue mineral deficiency, lack of concrete practice
Campylobacteriosis tissue injury in the gut
Coccidiosis Coccidia
Colds virus
Ingather bound Archived 2010-10-26 at the Wayback Machine improper feeding
Dermanyssus gallinae red mite parasite
Egg bounden oversized egg
Erysipelas Streptococcus bacteria
Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome high-energy food
Fowl cholera Pasteurella multocida
Fowlpox Fowlpox virus
Fowl typhoid bacteria
Avian infectious laryngotracheitis LT Gallid alphaherpesvirus ane
Gapeworm Syngamus trachea worms
Infectious bronchitis Infectious bronchitis virus
Infectious bursal affliction Gumboro infectious bursal disease virus
Infectious coryza in chickens Avibacterium paragallinarum
Lymphoid leukosis Avian sarcoma leukosis virus
Marek'due south affliction Gallid alphaherpesvirus ii
Moniliasis yeast infection
or thrush 		Candida fungi
Mycoplasma bacteria
Newcastle disease Avian avulavirus i
Necrotic enteritis Archived 2010-12-xvi at the Wayback Machine bacteria
Omphalitis Mushy chick disease[108] bacteria
Peritonitis[109] infection in abdomen from egg yolk
Psittacosis Chlamydia psittaci
Pullorum Salmonella leaner
Scaly leg Knemidokoptes mutans
Squamous cell carcinoma cancer
Tibial dyschondroplasia speed growing
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii
Ulcerative enteritis bacteria
Ulcerative pododermatitis bumblefoot bacteria

History

An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the give-and-take for domestic chicken (*manuk) is office of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian linguistic communication (see Austronesian languages). Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture,[110] the first Neolithic civilization of Oceania.[111]

The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BC.[112] [113]

Chickens were spread past Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Isle in the 12th century AD, where they were the merely domestic brute, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). They were housed in extremely solid craven coops congenital from stone, which was first reported as such to Linton Palmer in 1868, who also "expressed his doubts virtually this".[114]

In culture

Abraxas seen with a chicken's caput

The mythological basilisk or cockatrice is depicted as a reptile-like creature with the upper torso of a rooster.[115] [116] Abraxas, a figure in Gnosticism, is portrayed in a similar style as well.[117]

In Greek mythology, Alectryon was a young man that Ares put as a guardian outside his door to inform him if anybody came almost while he was making love to Aphrodite, who was married to Hephaestus, Ares' brother. But Alectryon fell asleep while on guard, then Helios, the dominicus, saw the ii lovers and alerted Hephaestus. In anger over Alectryon's incompetence, Ares turned him into a rooster, a bird that always crows at dawn when the sun is well-nigh to rise, still loyal to their promise to Ares.[118] [119] The rooster was thus 1 of Helios' sacred animals.[120]

Gallery

  • Rooster in the coat of arms of Laitila

  • A group of chicks

See also

  • Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity
  • Battery Hen Welfare Trust, a UK clemency for laying hens
  • Chicken every bit food
  • Chicken eyeglasses
  • Chicken fat
  • Chicken hypnotism
  • Craven or the egg
  • Chicken manure
  • Chook raffle – a blazon of raffle where the prize is a chicken.
  • Early feeding
  • Feral craven
  • Gamebird hybrids – hybrids betwixt chickens, peafowl, guineafowl and pheasants
  • Henopause
  • Hen and chicks, a type of plant
  • List of chicken breeds
  • Poularde
  • Rubber craven
  • Sex change in chickens
  • Symbolic chickens
  • "Tastes like craven"
  • Unihemispheric slow-moving ridge sleep
  • Urban chicken keeping
  • "Why did the chicken cross the route?"

Roosters

  • Craven laugh
  • Cock egg
  • Red Junglefowl
  • Rooster Flag (disambiguation)
  • Rooster of Barcelos

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ The surgical and chemical castration of chickens is now illegal in some parts of the earth.

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Further reading

  • Greenish-Armytage, Stephen (October 2000). Extraordinary Chickens. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN978-0-8109-3343-nine.
  • Smith, Folio; Charles Daniel (April 2000). The Chicken Book. University of Georgia Press. ISBN978-0-8203-2213-1.
  • Andrew Lawler (2014). Why Did the Chicken Cross the World?: The Epic Saga of the Bird that Powers Civilization. Atria Books. ISBN978-1-4767-2989-3.

External links

  • Chickens at Curlie
  • Video: Chick hatching from egg

armstrongunclefor.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken

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